HOSPITALLERS.

HOSPITALLERS.


There are distinguishing features in describing the three well known Knights:-

1) Knights Hospitallers.

2) Knights Templars.

3) Teutonic Knights.


1) Knights Hospitallers were members of the Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem, a religious and military order. The order was also known as the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem and as the Hospitallers and, later, as the Knights of Rhodes and as the Knights of Malta.

The order originated with a group of men who ran a hospice (shelter) for Christian pilgrims in Jerusalem during the late 1000's. In 1113, while the group was under the leadership of a man named Gerard, Pope Paschal II recognized it as a religious order. By the mid-1100's, the Hospitallers had also become a military order of Christian knighthood. During the 1100's and 1200's, the order helped provide a permanent force for the defence
of Christian territories in the Holy Land.

In 1291, the order was forced to leave the Holy Land and located on the island of Cyprus. About 1309, it took the island of Rhodes from the Byzantine Empire and established itself there. From its base on Rhodes, the order became a Mediterranean seafaring power and for hundreds of years distinguished itself as a major Western European force against the Ottoman Turks. But in 1522, the Ottoman ruler Suleiman I defeated the order, and the last knights left Rhodes on Jan. 1, 1523. In 1530, the order reestablished its headquarters, on the island of Malta. From Malta, it defended European interests in the Mediterranean until the French general Napoleon Bonaparte took Malta in 1798.

Today, the order no longer has a military function and focuses on caring for the sick. Its full name is the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St. John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes, and of Malta. But it is usually called the Knights of Malta.


2) Knights Templars were members of a religious military order of Christian knighthood. The order was founded about 1119 in Jerusalem by the French knights Hugh des Payens and Godfrey of St. Omer. The order was first called "the poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and the Temple of Solomon" because of their early state of poverty and the lodgings given them by King Baldwin II of Jerusalem. The lodgings were in the compound of the king's palace known as the Temple of Solomon.

The original purpose of the Templars complemented that of the Knights Hospitallers. The Knights Hospitallers aided pilgrims in the Holy Land while the Templars protected pilgrims on the way to and from the Holy Land.

The Templars organized under a rule (regulations for religious life) composed by Saint Bernard of Clairvaux. He stimulated the order's fame and growth through his writings and preaching during the Second Crusade (1147-1149). The Templars took monastic vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. They avoided extravagant ceremony and clothing, wearing the white mantle of the Cistercian order, with a red cross added.

At first the order included only knights, but gradually it admitted chaplains--priests who ministered to the knights--and sergeants--wealthy members of the middle class. The pope took the knights under his special protection, and the order added to its purpose the duty to fight all "infidels" who threatened Christianity. The Templars thus played a key role in the Crusades and became a powerful military organization. They grew rich with properties that were donated by grateful kings and princes.

The Templars entered the banking business, and Temples (local lodges) established throughout Europe drew deposits of massive wealth. Princes and commoners alike banked with the Templars, and many states became indebted to them. With the fall of the Holy Land to the Muslims in 1187, the order lost its founding purpose and became a target for unhappy and envious debtors.

In 1302, King Philip IV of France came into conflict with the pope. The king was also near bankruptcy. He waged a vicious and skillful campaign aimed at suppressing the Templars, hoping to gain the order's wealth and at the same time to strike a blow against the papacy. Philip ordered all the Templars in France thrown into prison, where they were tortured until they confessed to accusations of heresy, unnatural practices, and dishonest business activities. Historical evidence has supported only the charge of dishonesty.

Templars in England, Germany, Spain, and Portugal also stood trial, but most were acquitted because they were beyond Philip's immediate control. In 1312, Pope Clement V yielded to Philip's pressure and issued a bull (official decree) suppressing the Templars. The pope, however, awarded the Templars' property to several military orders in Spain and Portugal and its cash holdings to the Knights Hospitallers. During the French trials, the Templars' last grand master, Jacques de Molay, confessed to false charges. He later withdrew the confession but was burned at the stake anyway in 1314.


3) Teutonic Knights, was the name of an organization of German crusaders that arose in Europe during the 1100's. The Teutonic Knights were organized for service in the Holy Land. They modeled their organization after two earlier crusading orders, the Knights Templars and the Knights Hospitallers .

In the 1200's, the Teutonic Knights shifted their activities to central Europe, where they tried to convert and control the people of what became Prussia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. Their power and influence spread throughout central and eastern Europe.

In the 1300's, the Teutonic Knights lost much of their power, and finally the Poles and Lithuanians overthrew them. In 1525, the Grand Master, Albert of Hohenzollern, embraced Protestantism, and changed the Order from a religious to a civil organization. In 1618, the Order's territory passed to the Hohenzollern Elector of Brandenburg.

THE ORDER OF ST JOHN IN JERUSALEM

THE ORDER OF ST JOHN IN JERUSALEM


Part 1.

When the Knights of St John captured Rhodes and assumed authority over virtually the

whole of the Dodecanese, they already had two centuries of history behind them. The exact

date of the founding of their religious-military Order is difficult to determine, since its

beginnings are shrouded in legend and historical obscurity.

It is very possible that future research will bring to light new evidence bearing on this issue,

but at present it may be said, with reservations, that the inception of a philanthropic

Christian Order has been traced back to Jerusalem, in around the middle of the eleventh

century. Amalfian traders obtained permission from the Caliph to build the church of

Sainte Marie-Latine next to the church of the Resurrection, as well as a hospice for the

accommodation of Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land. The hospice-hospital was run by

Benedictine monks. It seems that from the end of the eleventh to the beginning of the

twelfth century, that is prior to the First Crusade and the capture of Jerusalem by the

Western Europeans, this first Frankish hospice-hospital had no connections with the

Order of the Hospitallers, as the Knights of St John ( named after their patron St John

the Baptist ) were otherwise known.


Part 2.

In the early years of the twelfth century the enigmatic figure of Pierre Gerard or

Gerard Tenque appeared in Jerusalem, a personality swathed in legend. Neither his

homeland, his family nor his education are known, yet according to all indications to date,

it is he who founded the Order. The Amalfian hospice was merely a precursory foundation.

It is very probable that in Gerard’s day the Knights were only hospitallers and had no

military capacity or organization.

After Gerard’s death, he was succeeded in 1120/1 by Raymond du Puys, who took the title

of Master for the first time. It was then that the Order was organized as a military body, in

accordance with Western European feudal principles, though it did not abandon its original

philanthropic role, at least ostensibly. Through donations, it acquired an enormous property

in land, including entire provinces in the West and East. From the beginning of the twelfth

century, the Knights of St John, together with the Templars, became the most important

representatives of the ideology of the Crusade, wielding their swords against the Mohammedan

foe in the heart of the Holy Land. This explains the zeal with which feudal Europe offered them

economic and moral support. They were ever the spearhead, which initially struggled in the cause

of Western expansionism and the establishment of Western possessions in the East, and later

to defend the West humiliation and defeat at the hands of the “Infidel”. The Knights acquired

military strongholds in Syria and Palestine, such as Jerusalem, Caesarea, Capernaum, Jericho,

Ascalon, Margat, Krak and others.


Part 3.

The Western Europeans barely managed to maintain their hold on the Middle East for two

centuries. In the face of the Arab force, urban centres and fortresses fell one after the other.

The Knights played their part in the defence of the Holy Land and, loyal to their mission, were the

last to retreat. In the wake of the final fall of Jerusalem and Asclon in 1247, came that of Krak

in 1271, and of Margat in 1281. The last beleaguered fortress of the Franks was Acre in Palestine,

which too capitulated in 1291. Decimated and with their Grand Master severely wounded, the

Knights of St John went to Cyprus, where they installed themselves in the region of Limassol.

On Cyprus, however they felt restricted. They were vassals of the island’s Frankish king and

thus unable to act freely. In 1306 the opportunity of acquiring new headquarters befitting their

purpose presented itself. The Grand Master Foulques de Villaret entered into negotiations with

Vignolo de’ Vignoli, who was a liegelord of the Dodecanese. The two men drew up an agreement

whereby, after the capture of Rhodes, Vignolo de’ Vignoli would retain one-third of the island,

the Knights the other two-thirds, the whole of Leros and two-thirds of Kos.

Liturgical day: Wednesday 5th of Easter.

Liturgical day: Wednesday 5th of Easter # 70509.


Today's Gospel (Jn 15:1-8): Jesus said to his disciples, «I am the true vine and my Father is the winegrower. If any of my branches doesn't bear fruit, he breaks it off; and he prunes every branch that does bear fruit, that it may bear even more fruit. You are already made clean by the word I have spoken to you; live in me as I live in you. The branch cannot bear fruit by itself but has to remain part of the vine; so neither can you if you don't remain in me. I am the vine and you are the branches. As long as you remain in me and I in you, you bear much fruit; but apart from me you can do nothing. Whoever does not remain in me is thrown away as they do with branches and they wither. Then they are gathered and thrown into the fire and burned. If you remain in me and my words in you, you may ask whatever you want and it will be given to you. My Father is glorified when you bear much fruit: it is then that you become my disciples».
Commentary: Fr. Antoni Carol i Hostench (Sant Cugat del Vallès-Barcelona, Catalonia)
«Live in me as I live in you»
Today, once more, we may see Jesus surrounded by the Apostles in an atmosphere of especial intimacy. He is giving them what we could consider as his final recommendations: what is normally said in the last moment, in the last farewell; that which has an especial force, as if it would be the last will.
We imagine them in the cenacle. Jesus has washed their feet there, has announced them again He must go, has transmitted them his command of fraternal love and has consoled them with the gift of the Eucharistic and the promise of the Holy Spirit (cf. Jn 14). And, well ahead this 15th chapter of John's Gospel we now find the exhortation to unity within charity.
Our Lord does not hide to his disciples all the dangers and difficulties they will have to face in the near future: «If they persecuted Me they will persecute you...» (Jn 15:20). But they should not be intimidated nor overwhelmed by all the hate they will find in this world: Jesus renews his promise of the arrival of the Protector, while assuring them they may ask and they will be given. Finally, the Lord prays for them —for all of us— to the Holy Father during his priestly prayer (cf. Jn 17).
But our danger does not come from outside, though: the worst menace may arise within ourselves when we fail to respect the fraternal love among the members of Christ's Mystic Body or the unity with the Head of that Body. The recommendation is clear: «I am the vine and you are the branches. As long as you remain in me and I in you, you bear much fruit; but apart from me you can do nothing» (Jn 15:5).
The first generations of Christians managed to keep a very clear conscience of the importance of remaining united through charity. Here is the testimony of one the Fathers of the Church, saint Ignatius of Antioch: «Do you therefore all run together as into one temple of God, as to one altar, as to one Jesus Christ, who came forth from one Father». And here is also an indication from the Virgin Mary, Mother of the Christians: «Whatsoever he said unto you, do [it]» (Jn 2:5).

ZERO

Zero, in arithmetic, is the name of the digit 0, sometimes called naught or a cypher. It is used to indicate the absence of quantity. A zero is needed in a positional numeral system, such as the familiar decimal system commonly used by most people today. In a positional system, the position, or place, of a digit determines the digit's value. Thus, in the numeral 246, the digit 2 stands for two hundred, the digit 4 stands for four tens (or forty), and the digit 6 stands for six units, or ones. The numeral represents the number 246. In order to write the number 206, a symbol is needed to show that there are no tens. The digit 0 serves this purpose. Zero added to or subtracted from a number gives the original number. A number multiplied by zero gives zero. Division by zero is undefined. Zero is an even number.
On most scales, zero marks the starting point or the neutral position. Positive numbers are placed to the right or above zero, and negative numbers are placed to the left or below zero. But on some scales, zero is set arbitrarily. For example, on a Celsius thermometer, zero is set at the temperature at which water freezes.
The Maya Indians of Central America are believed to have invented the concept of the zero before the A.D. 300's. The Hindus developed the concept independently several hundred years later. The idea spread from India and was adopted in Europe during the late 1400's. The word zero probably came from ziphirum, a Latinized form of the Arabic word sifr. Sifr is a translation of the Hindu word sunya (void or empty).

Arizona.

Arizona, once thought to be an almost worthlessdesert, has become a prosperous state of the United States. It is rich in farm and mineral products, and is growing rapidly in manufacturing and population. Vast irrigation systems transform the desert soil into rich farmland. Although the desert summers are very hot, Arizonans stay comfortable. They live in air-cooled homes, work in air-conditioned factories, and travel in air-conditioned automobiles. The desert winters are warm and pleasant. Arizonans, along with thousands of vacationers, enjoy the desert sun while winter chills other parts of the United States. Arizona's climate attracts so many people that the state has become one of the nation's fastest-growing areas. Between 1950 and 1990, Arizona's population grew by almost five times.

Most of Arizona's people live in desert areas, but more than half the state is mountain and plateau country. These higher, cooler areas have the largest ponderosa pine forest in the United States. Large herds of cattle and sheep graze in these regions. The northwestern part of the state has one of the greatest scenic attractions in the United States--the mighty Grand Canyon of the Colorado River. The spectacular Grand Canyon and other scenic wonders, including the Painted Desert and the Petrified Forest, attract millions of tourists to the state each year.
The federal government has an important part in Arizona's economy. The United States owns or controls about 70 per cent of the state's land. Dams built by the government or with federal funds provide water to irrigate large areas of land in Arizona. These dams also generate electric power for the state's cities and industries.
Arizona has the third-largest Indian population in the United States. Only Oklahoma and California have more Indians. Indian reservations cover more than a fourth of Arizona's land. About 155,000 Indians live in Arizona. About three-fourths of them live on 20 reservations in the state. Indians have contributed much to Arizona's exciting history. Some Indians still live in communities built more than 800 years ago. Indians developed the first irrigation systems hundreds of years before white people came. After the whites arrived, the Indians fought fiercely to keep their rugged, beautiful land. Cochise and Geronimo led war parties in Arizona long after most other Indians had surrendered.
Arizona's history also includes many years of rule by Spanish conquerors, and by Mexicans who freed the region from Spanish control. Today, a large number of Americans of Mexican ancestry live in Arizona. Their influence is apparent in the customs, foods, and place names found in the state.
The name Arizona comes from an Indian word, probably arizonac, but no one is sure what it means. Some people believe it means small spring. Arizona is nicknamed the Grand Canyon State. Phoenix is the capital and largest city of Arizona.


ARIZONA/People
Population. The 1990 United States census reported that Arizona had 3,677,985 people. The population had increased 35 percent over the 1980 figure, 2,718,425. According to the 1990 census, Arizona ranks 24th in population among the 50 states.
More than four-fifths of Arizona's people live in cities and towns. About three-fifths of the people live in the Phoenix-Mesa metropolitan area. Another fifth of the population lives in the Tucson metropolitan area (see METROPOLITAN AREA).
Phoenix, the largest city in Arizona, is a trading and shipping center for a rich agricultural district. Tucson, the second-largest city in the state, was originally a Spanish fort. It became famous as a resort town. Both of these cities are important manufacturing centers and vacation areas.
About 6 out of 100 Arizonans are American Indians. Arizona has the third-largest Indian population in the nation. Only Oklahoma and California have more Indians. The Navajo are the largest tribe in Arizona. The Indian settlement of Oraibi, in northern Arizona, is one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in the United States. Hopi Indians built the settlement in the 1100's. Arizona has 16 tribal councils. These councils help govern the various tribes and supervise their property.
Arizona also has many people of Mexican ancestry, particularly in the southern part of the state. Many families in these groups speak Spanish at home, but the children in the families learn English at school. Mexican foods and customs are extremely popular among residents of Arizona. The state also has many people of German, English, and Irish descent.
Schools. The first schools in Arizona were established in the late 1600's by Spanish missionary priests. These schools taught little except religion. In the 1820's, the Mexican government expelled the priests. It feared they might not be loyal to Mexico. The first public school in Arizona opened in Tucson in 1871.
Today, the state's school system is headed by an elected superintendent of public instruction. This official is a member of and carries out policy made by the State Board of Education. Other members of the board are appointed by the governor. They include a classroom teacher, a president of a state university, a representative of the state community colleges, a county school superintendent, a high school district superintendent, and three private citizens. Schools are financed chiefly by taxes.
Children are required to attend school from the ages of 6 to 16. For the number of students and teachers in Arizona, see EDUCATION (table).
Navajo Community College in Tsaile, Arizona, near Lukachukai, was the first U.S. college located on an Indian reservation. It opened in 1969.

Libraries and museums. Arizona's first library was probably the library established in Arivaca by Samuel Colt, the famous pistol maker. Colt had a mine located in Arivaca in the 1860's, and he provided books for his workers. Tucson had a rental library in the 1870's. By 1878, both Phoenix and Prescott had small libraries. The Arizona Territorial Library, which was founded in 1864, became the Department of Library, Archives, and Public Records.
Arizona museums feature art, science, history, and American Indian cultures. The Arizona State Museum and the Arizona Historical Society's Tucson museum are among the oldest in the state. The Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, the International Wildlife Museum, and the Pima Air Museum are near Tucson. The Museum of Northern Arizona, near Flagstaff, has exhibits of American Indian arts and crafts. Museums in the Phoenix area include the Phoenix Art Museum; the Heard Museum, which features American Indian art; Pueblo Grande Museum, with a prehistoric Indian village; the Arizona State Capitol Museum; and the Champlin Fighter Museum, which has World War I and World War II fighter aircraft.
ARIZONA/Visitor's guide
Arizona attracts visitors throughout the year. But its winter season has become nationally famous. Thousands of vacationers flock to the sunny desert playgrounds when other parts of the country are cold. At the same time, ski resorts in the mountains of northern Arizona lure winter sports lovers. Dude ranches, historic sites, and magnificent scenery draw other travelers to the state. The outstanding scenic feature is the world-famous Grand Canyon, one of the seven natural wonders of the world. This giant gorge, 277 miles (446 kilometers) long and 1 mile (1.6 kilometers) deep, cuts through the rock of northwestern Arizona. Every year, over 4 million visitors gaze at its splendor. The Petrified Forest in northeastern Arizona is made up of ancient logs that were buried in mud, sand, or volcanic ash years ago and have turned to stone. The state has 15 national monuments, more than any other state. They are in areas of historic, archaeological, or scenic interest.
Arizona's popular annual events include rodeos, county fairs, and Indian ceremonials. These events are held throughout the year. On May 5, Arizona communities celebrate Cinco de Mayo. This Mexican holiday honors the victory of a Mexican army over an invading French force at Puebla, Mexico, in 1862.


ARIZONA/Land and climate
Land regions. Arizona has three main land regions: (1) the Colorado Plateau, (2) the Transition Zone, and (3) the Basin and Range Region.
The Colorado Plateau, in northern Arizona, covers about two-fifths of the state. The region consists of a series of plateaus with fairly level surfaces. This pattern is broken here and there by a few mountains and canyons. Humphreys Peak, the highest mountain in the state, rises 12,633 feet (3,851 meters) near Flagstaff. The deepest canyon is the famous Grand Canyon on the Colorado River. Tributaries of the Colorado have cut other beautiful canyons into the flat land. These include Canyon de Chelly and Oak Creek Canyon.
Many of the mountains are forested, but the region also has dry deserts with little vegetation. Along the Arizona-Utah border in the northeast, strange and beaut-iful rock formations rise from the floor of a broad val- ley. They gave the valley the name Monument Valley. The colorful Painted Desert and the Petrified Forest are well-known parts of the region (see PAINTED DESERT; PETRIFIED FOREST NATIONAL PARK).
The series of a level plateaus that makes up the Colorado Plateau Region end in the Mogollon Rim on the south. This rim is a steep rock wall almost 2,000 feet (610 meters) high. It extends from central Arizona to the Mogollon Mountains in southwestern New Mexico. The principal industries of the plateau region of Arizona are livestock raising, lumbering, and tourism.
The Transition Zone is a narrow strip of land that lies just south of the Colorado Plateau. This region has several mountain ranges. The ranges are close together in an area of rugged peaks and narrow valleys. This rough country in Arizona includes the Mazatzal, Santa Maria, Sierra Ancha, and White mountain ranges.
The Basin and Range Region includes most of the southern part of the state and a narrow strip in the west. Mountain ranges run through the Basin and Range Region from northwest to southeast. The most important mountain ranges are the Chiricahua, Gila, Huachuca, Hualapai, Pinaleno, Santa Catalina, Santa Rita, and Superstition ranges. These mountains are more heavily forested than the mountains in the Transition Zone, and the valleys are broad and fertile. This part of the Basin and Range Region produces excellent crops when the soil is irrigated. The state's largest cities developed in this area.
In the extreme west and south of the Basin and Range Region, the mountains are low and barren. Broad desert basins lie between the ranges. This area of the state gets little rain, and it has almost no vegetation. Along the western border of Arizona, water from the Colorado River is used to irrigate the dry land. The irrigated land produces excellent crops.
Rivers, waterfalls, and lakes. Arizona's most important river is the Colorado. In Arizona, the river is 688 miles (1,107 kilometers) long. It enters the state from Utah almost in the middle of the northern border. Then it winds west through the Grand Canyon and turns south. The river forms almost the entire western boundary of Arizona.
The Colorado and its tributaries drain most of the state. Before 1935, the muddy Colorado carried about a million tons of rich soil to the Gulf of California every day. Irrigation and power dams on the great river and its branches have helped control the flow, and the river is much clearer today.
Few small streams in Arizona flow all year. Some mountain creeks have a steady flow, but most streams often seem dry. Rushing water fills the riverbeds of the Bill Williams, Little Colorado, San Pedro, and Santa Cruz rivers after a rain. At other times, these rivers appear to be dry. However, water always flows beneath their sandy beds. Many mountain streams tumble down cliffs and canyon walls in waterfalls and cascades. The best-known falls include Beaver, Bridal Veil, Havasu, Mooney, and Navajo. All of these falls are on Havasu Creek in the Supai Canyon area of the Grand Canyon.
Several small natural lakes lie in the mountain areas of the state, but all the largest lakes are artificially created. Many artificial lakes have been made by damming streams for irrigation and for water conservation. The largest of these lakes include Theodore Roosevelt Lake and San Carlos Lake. Lake Mead, behind Hoover Dam, lies partly in Nevada. Part of Lake Havasu, formed by Parker Dam, is in California. Lake Powell, which was created by Glen Canyon Dam, lies partly in Arizona and partly in Utah.
Plant and animal life. Forests cover more than a fourth of Arizona. The mountain regions of Arizona have the largest area of ponderosa pine in the United States. Other trees in the state include aspen, blue spruce, cottonwood, Douglas-fir, juniper, pinon, walnut, and white fir.
Arizona is famous for its cactus plants. The sharp-spined cholla cactus is common in the hot desert areas. Creosote bushes and prickly pear cactuses also grow in the desert. The organ-pipe cactus is found in desert areas near sea level. The saguaro, which is common in southern Arizona, grows larger than any other cactus in the United States. The saguaro blossom is the state flower. Other unusual plants that grow in Arizona include the night-blooming cereus and several varieties of the yucca plant. Arizona wild flowers include the geranium, golden columbine, paintbrush, phlox, pink, poppy, and sand verbena.
Animal life in Arizona includes large numbers of mule deer and white-tailed deer. Other big-game animals include black bears, elk, mountain sheep, and pronghorns. Several members of the cat family, including bobcats, mountain lions, and ocelots, prowl in the forested areas. Other Arizona animals include badgers, beavers, foxes, raccoons, skunks, squirrels, weasels, and wild pigs called javelinas.
Arizona has over 40 kinds of lizards, including the poisonous Gila monster. Rattlesnakes live in most parts of the state, and the rare, poisonous coral snake is found in the desert. The state's hotter areas have scorpions and tarantulas.
Arizona's game birds include doves, grouse, quail, wild turkeys, and various waterfowl. Trout swim in the Colorado River and in the mountain streams. Other fishes include bass, bluegills, and crappies.
Climate. Temperatures vary greatly in Arizona. Mountain areas often have winter temperatures below 0° F (-18° C). The southern deserts may not have freezing weather for years. The dry air in the deserts makes cold or heat seem more comfortable there than in humid regions.
The state's highest temperature, 127° F (53° C), was recorded at Parker on July 7, 1905. Hawley Lake, near McNary, had the record low, -40° F (-40° C), on Jan. 7, 1971. In Phoenix, temperatures average about 91° F (33° C) in July, and about 51° F (11° C) in January.
Precipitation (rain, melted snow, and other forms of moisture) varies greatly throughout the state. The deserts of the southwest get only 2 to 5 inches (5 to 13 centimeters) of moisture a year. The high mountain areas may receive as much as 30 inches (76 centimeters) a year.

ARIZONA/Economy
Service industries provide the largest portion of Arizona's gross state product--the total value of goods and services produced in a state in a year. Service industries include such activities as education, health care, real estate, and retail trade. Many service industries benefit from spending by tourists and by retired people who live in the state all or part of the year.
Manufacturing in Arizona is based on such high-technology products as computers, electronic equipment, and aerospace vehicles. Agriculture and mining are also important in Arizona. The state has many cattle ranches and is the nation's leading copper producer.

Natural resources. Arizona's leading natural resources are its climate, water, and mineral deposits.
Water has special importance in Arizona because of the state's arid climate. Farmers must bring water to their land to make crops grow. A system of canals created by American Indians hundreds of years ago still supplies much of this water today. This water comes from mountain reservoirs fed by winter snow and spring rain. However, Arizona uses far more water than it can get from its streams and storage reservoirs. The state's underground water supply is being used up faster than nature can replace it.
In 1968, the United States Congress approved funding for the Central Arizona Project. This long-range project provides for pumping large quantities of water from the Colorado River to the Phoenix and Tucson areas for agricultural and other purposes. Arizona has also begun a statewide water management and water reclamation program to meet current water needs while replenishing the state's supply of underground water.
Minerals. Arizona's mountains and plains contain large deposits of minerals, the most valuable of which is copper. Sand and gravel come from all 15 counties in the state. Other minerals in Arizona include gold, petroleum, pumice, silver, stone, uranium, and coal. Molybdenum and vanadium, which are used in hardening steel, are also present. Arizona's less important mineral resources include clay, bentonite, feldspar, gypsum, iron, lead, natural gas, quartz, and salt.
Soil. Only about an eighth of Arizona's soil is suitable for farming because of the limited amount of water available for irrigation. Soils of the plateau region in northern and eastern Arizona are thin and gray. The mountain soils of Arizona also are thin and are either brown or gray. The lowlands of southwestern Arizona have red soils. In some parts of Arizona's lowland region, the soil lies over a layer of lime rock called caliche. The rock may be so hard that power tools may be needed to dig holes.
Service industries in Arizona account for the largest portion of the gross state product. Most of the service industries in the state are concentrated in the Phoenix and Tucson areas.
Community, business, and personal services lead Arizona's service industries in terms of the gross state product. This industry also employs more people than any of the state's other economic activities. It consists of a variety of businesses, including doctors offices and private hospitals, hotels and resorts, law firms, and repair shops. Arizona's hotels and resorts receive much business from tourists during the winter.
Ranking next among the service industries of Arizona are (1) wholesale and retail trade and (2) finance, insurance, and real estate. The wholesale trade of farm products, mineral products, and motor vehicles is important in the state. Major types of retail businesses include automobile dealerships, department stores, and food stores. Circle K, a large chain of convenience stores that also provides gasoline service, has its corporate headquarters in Phoenix.
Real estate is the most important part of the finance, insurance, and real estate industry in Arizona. The state's rapidly growing population has created a strong demand for new housing. A large number of office buildings and resorts are being developed. Phoenix is Arizona's major financial center. Several large banks are based in the city.
Government ranks next among Arizona's service industries. Government services include the operation of public schools and hospitals, military establishments, and Indian reservations. Arizona State University in Tempe and Phoenix and the University of Arizona in Tucson, two of the nation's largest universities, are among the state's leading employers. Military bases in Arizona include Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Fort Huachuca Military Reservation, Luke Air Force Base, and the Yuma Proving Ground. The state has several large Indian reservations. They include the Navajo reservation, which covers most of northeastern Arizona. The federal government owns or controls over 80 percent of the state's land.
Transportation, communication, and utilities rank fifth among Arizona's service industries. America West Airlines, a major U.S. transportation company, is based in Phoenix. Phoenix is also the home of Pinnacle West, a major electric power company. Telephone companies are the most important part of the communications sector. More information about transportation and communication appears later in this section.
Manufacturing. Products made in Arizona have a value added by manufacture of about $20 billion a year. This figure represents the increase in value of raw materials after they become finished products.
Arizona's leading manufactured products, in terms of value added by manufacture, are electrical equipment, transportation equipment, and scientific instruments. Factories in Phoenix or nearby cities produce most of the state's electrical equipment. Plants in Chandler, Mesa, Phoenix, and Tempe make semiconductors and other electronic components. Electronic communication systems are manufactured in Scottsdale. Radios are made in Phoenix. Both the Phoenix and Tucson areas turn out large amounts of transportation equipment. Plants in Phoenix and Tempe make aircraft parts. A factory just outside Phoenix makes space vehicles. Guided missiles are produced in Tucson. Factories in Phoenix and Tucson produce scientific measuring instruments. Several factories in the Phoenix area make navigational equipment.
Other types of manufactured products made in Arizona, in order of value added, include printed materials, primary metals, and food products. Newspapers are the most important type of printed material made in the state. Copper is, by far, the leading type of primary metal produced in the state. Food products include soft drinks, baked goods, animal feed, and dairy products.
Agriculture. Arizona has about 7,400 farms. Farmland covers about half the state. Crops are grown on less than 5 percent of the farmland. However, they account for about half of Arizona's farm income. Livestock and livestock products account for the other half of the farm income. Most ranches in Arizona are much larger than farms that produce crops. All of Arizona's 15 counties have some irrigated land. La Paz, Maricopa, Pinal, and Yuma counties have the most productive irrigated areas in the state.
Crops account for about 55 percent of Arizona's total farming income. Cotton is the most valuable crop, and Arizona ranks among the leading cotton-producing states. Cotton production is concentrated in south-central Arizona, between Phoenix and Tucson. Arizona is also among the leading producers of lettuce and citrus fruits. Other important crops in the state include hay, barley, potatoes, and wheat.
Livestock accounts for about 45 percent of Arizona's farm income. Beef cattle are the single leading source of farm income in the state. The leading region for raising beef cattle lies just south of the central mountains. The northeastern part of the state and the valleys in the mountain region also have many cattle ranches. Northeast Arizona also has many sheep pastures. Most of the state's dairy farms lie southwest of Phoenix.
Mining. Copper provides most of Arizona's mining income. Greenlee, Pima, and Pinal counties in the southern part of the state supply most of the copper. Gila and Yavapai counties also have major copper mines. Large amounts of gold, molybdenum, and silver are recovered as by-products of copper ore.
Coal, sand and gravel, and crushed stone are also important mineral products in Arizona. Coal is obtained from surface mines in Navajo County. Maricopa and Pima counties provide the most sand and gravel. Pima and Yavapai counties have large stone quarries.
Electric power. Power plants that burn coal supply about 45 percent of the electric power generated in Arizona. Nuclear plants generate about 40 percent of the state's power. Hydroelectric plants contribute most of the rest of the remaining power.
Transportation. Arizona has about 54,000 miles (88,000 kilometers) of roads and highways. Interstate 10 connects Tucson, Phoenix, and Los Angeles. The part of Arizona north of the Colorado River is isolated from the rest of the state by the Grand Canyon. No roads cross the canyon.
Sky Harbor International Airport in Phoenix is the state's busiest commercial airport. Tucson has the state's second busiest airport. In 1919, Tucson became the first U.S. city to have its own municipal airport.
Several railroads provide freight service, and passenger trains serve several cities in the state. The Southern Pacific became the first railroad to enter the region when it built its line into Yuma in 1877.
Communication. Arizona's first newspaper, the Weekly Arizonian, began publication in Tubac in 1859. Today, about 90 newspapers are published in the state, including about 20 dailies. The Arizona Republic of Phoenix has the largest circulation. The Arizona Daily Star and the Tucson Citizen, both of Tucson, also have large circulations. Arizona publishers also print about 80 magazines.
The state has about 160 radio stations and 25 television stations. KTAR, then called KFAD, was Arizona's first commercial radio station. It began broadcasting in Phoenix in 1922. The state's first television station, KPHO-TV, began broadcasting from Phoenix in 1949. Today, cable television systems serve many of Arizona's communities.
ARIZONA/Government
Constitution. Arizona is governed under its original Constitution, which was adopted in 1911. The Constitution has been amended (changed) about 120 times.
All amendments must be approved by a majority of the voters in an election. Amendments may be proposed by a majority of both houses of the state Legislature, by petition from the voters, or by a constitutional convention. A convention may be called if approved by a majority vote of both houses, and then by a majority of the people voting on the question in an election.
Executive. The governor of Arizona is elected to a four-year term. The governor may serve any number of terms, but no more than two terms in a row.
Arizona has no lieutenant governor. A governor who dies or resigns is succeeded by one of the other four state officials elected by the voters. These are, in order of succession, the secretary of state, attorney general, state treasurer, and superintendent of public instruction. All serve four-year terms. They may serve any number of terms, but no more than two in a row.

Legislature consists of a 30-member Senate and a 60-member House of Representatives. Each of Arizona's 30 legislative districts elects one senator and two representatives to two-year terms. These officials may serve any number of terms, but no more than four in a row. The Legislature meets each year on the second Monday in January. Rules have been adopted to end the sessions no later than the Saturday after the 100th day. But the president of the Senate and the speaker of the House of Representatives may extend a session for a period not to exceed seven additional days. After that, the session can be extended only by a majority vote of the Legislature. The governor may call a special session, which has no time limit.
Courts. The highest court in Arizona is the state Supreme Court. Its five justices are appointed to six-year terms by the governor from a list of candidates submitted by a Commission on Appellate Court Appointments. At the end of each justice's term, voters decide whether the judge should be retained. The justices elect one of their members as chief justice for a five-year term.
A state Court of Appeals was created in 1965. This court has two divisions, one centered in Phoenix and the other in Tucson. The Phoenix division has 15 judges, and the Tucson division has six judges. All Court of Appeals judges serve six-year terms and are selected in the same way as the Arizona Supreme Court justices. Superior Courts in each county handle most major criminal and civil cases. Superior Court judges in Maricopa and Pima counties are appointed by the governor to four-year terms. In the other counties, Superior Court judges are elected by the people to four-year terms. Justice-of-the-peace courts and municipal courts deal with less important cases.
Local government in Arizona is carried on through 15 counties and about 80 cities and towns. Counties are governed by a three- or five-member board of supervisors. Supervisors are elected to four-year terms. Most counties have either a county-manager or an administrator. This official conducts the daily business of the county and is guided by the board of supervisors.
Communities with over 1,500 people may vote to incorporate their community as a city or town. Towns in Arizona are governed by councils of five or seven members, depending on the size of the community. The council elects one of its members as mayor. Some Arizona cities also use this same system. However, a city may adopt a home rule charter, which allows it to change the form of its government. More than 40 cities, including most of the largest ones, have city managers.
Revenue. Taxes provide about 60 percent of the state government's general revenue (income). Four taxes produce almost all the tax money. These are (1) a sales tax, (2) income taxes on corporations and individuals, (3) a tax on motor fuels, and (4) property taxes. Federal grants and U.S. and local government programs provide about a fourth of the general revenue. Most of the rest of the government's revenue comes from taxes on licenses.
Politics. For many years, Democrats controlled Arizona politics, particularly on the local level. Since 1950, however, Republicans have won the support of many voters in Arizona's rapidly growing cities. In 1975, Raul H. Castro, a Democrat, became the first Mexican-American governor of Arizona.
Today, the large cities of Phoenix and Tucson usually produce Republican majorities. Democratic strength is greater in rural areas and small towns. Maricopa County, in which Phoenix is located, has a majority of the state's voters. As a result, that county is extremely important in elections. Among the Republican leaders who helped make Arizona a two-party state was U.S. Senator Barry M. Goldwater, the Republican candidate for President in 1964.
Arizona has voted for Republicans in presidential elections about two-thirds of the time. In 1964, Arizona was the only state outside the South to vote for Goldwater.
ARIZONA/History

Indian days. Indians probably lived in Arizona several thousand years ago. The earliest settlements were built by three Indian tribes--the Anasazi, Hohokam, and Mogollon. The Anasazi, who lived in the north, were the ancestors of the present-day Pueblo Indians. The Hohokam, who settled in the Gila and Salt river valleys, became known for the irrigation ditches that they dug for their fields. Their descendants are the Papago and Pima Indians. The Mogollon lived in what are now eastern Arizona and New Mexico. Not long before white people came, Apache and Navajo Indians moved into the Arizona area. See INDIAN, AMERICAN (Indians of the Southwest).
Exploration. During the 1530's, stories reached the Spaniards in Mexico telling about the great wealth of the Seven Cities of Cibola. The Spaniards grew eager to find this treasure, and several expeditions set forth. None of these attempts succeeded. Marcos de Niza, a Franciscan priest, became the first white person known to enter the Arizona region. He traveled through the San Pedro Valley in 1539, on his way to hunt for the seven cities. The next year, the Spanish explorer Francisco Vasquez de Coronado searched for the treasure. He visited the Hopi and Zuni villages in what are now Arizona and New Mexico. See CIBOLA, SEVEN CITIES OF.
During the late 1600's, the Roman Catholic Church sent priests into the region to establish missions. In 1692, Father Eusebio Kino traveled as far north as the present site of Fairbank. He founded 24 missions and made long exploring trips.
The Indians tried to drive out the Spaniards several times. But the Spanish soldiers always regained any territory they had lost. In 1752, Spanish troops established the state's first white settlement, a fort at Tubac. In 1776, Tucson also became a Spanish fort. It was surrounded by thick adobe walls to protect the soldiers and their families from the Apache Indians.
Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821, and the land that is now Arizona became part of the new country. In 1846, the United States went to war with Mexico. U.S. forces took control of the region. Under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the war in 1848, the United States took possession of New Mexico. At that time, New Mexico included Arizona as far south as the Gila River. Many Easterners opposed the treaty because they feared that slavery would be established in the newly acquired land. But the U.S. Senate approved the treaty. The Gadsden Purchase in 1853 added the region south of the Gila River to form the present boundary between the United States and Mexico. See MEXICAN WAR; GUADALUPE HIDALGO, TREATY OF; GADSDEN PURCHASE.
Territorial days. The Civil War (1861-1865) brought great political changes to Arizona. In the 1850's, the settlers had asked Congress to create an Arizona Territory, but their requests were ignored. After the Confederacy was formed, many Arizona settlers wanted to join it because they had come from the South. They chose a delegate to the Confederate Congress.
In 1862, the Confederacy sent troops to occupy the New Mexico and Arizona areas. Union forces defeated the Southerners. In 1863, the Confederate government created the Confederate Territory of Arizona. However, the action had little meaning because of the earlier military defeat.
The Confederate activity led to action by the United States. Congress created the Arizona Territory with boundaries about the same as those of the present state. On Dec. 27, 1863, John N. Goodwin officially took control of the area as territorial governor. Goodwin established his headquarters at Fort Whipple. A log house was built for him not far from the fort. The town of Prescott grew up around this house.
Indian fighting. Arizona's few settlers lived in fear of hostile Indians. The Navajo were defeated in 1864 in a campaign led by the famous scout Kit Carson. But the fierce Apaches continued to fight. Small bands of warriors made hundreds of raids on lonely ranches and outposts throughout the Southwest. Under such famous leaders as Cochise, Geronimo, and Mangas Coloradas, the Apaches even attacked forts and towns. The last raiding party under Geronimo finally surrendered on Sept. 4, 1886. See INDIAN WARS (Desert battleground); COCHISE; GERONIMO.
Territorial progress. In spite of almost constant Indian fighting, Arizona made great progress. Gold and silver discoveries brought many miners to the territory. As early as 1867, farmers in the Salt River Valley near present-day Phoenix began irrigating their fields. Ranching became a large-scale business during the 1870's. The rich copper mines of Arizona became highly developed in the 1870's and 1880's. The Southern Pacific Railroad entered Arizona from California on Sept. 30, 1877.
Statehood. Strong movements began about 1890 to make the territory a state. But Congress refused to act. In 1910, Congress permitted Arizona to draw up a constitution and apply for statehood. But again there was a delay. President William Howard Taft vetoed the bill because the proposed state constitution would have permitted the voters to remove judges from office by a process known as recall (see RECALL). This clause was taken out of the constitution, and statehood was approved. Arizona became the 48th state on Feb. 14, 1912. The people soon changed their constitution to allow the recall of judges.
Progress as a state. George W. P. Hunt, a Democrat, greatly influenced Arizona's early history. He became the state's first governor, and served seven terms. Hunt supported the development of dams and irrigation systems, and worked for laws favorable to the ranching and mining industries.
Federal projects helped the new state in water development and tourism. The first big dam providing irrigation water was the Theodore Roosevelt Dam, completed in 1911 on the Salt River above Phoenix. More dams were built during the next 25 years. Coolidge Dam on the Gila River, Bartlett Dam on the Verde River, and three more dams on the Salt River added greatly to the state's irrigated area. The biggest dam, Hoover Dam on the Colorado River, was completed in 1936. The U.S. government helped increase tourism by developing scenic and historic spots. The warm, dry climate attracted health seekers and winter visitors.
Arizona's copper production increased through the 1920's and 1930's. Agricultural production also increased as more land was irrigated. The Great Depression of the 1930's forced workers in many parts of the nation to seek new jobs. Some of them settled in Arizona. Between 1920 and 1940, the state's population grew from 334,162 to 499,261.
The mid-1900's. During World War II (1939-1945), the government built many air bases in Arizona because the large number of sunny days provided ideal flying weather. The demand for Arizona's chief products--cattle, copper, and cotton--increased rapidly during the wartime boom. Phoenix doubled in size.
The boom continued into the 1950's. Thousands of veterans who had been stationed in Arizona returned with their families to live there. Air conditioning became widespread and made life pleasant in the desert region. As a result, many people, including large numbers of retired persons, moved to Arizona from the East. The state's population rose by about 50 per cent during the 1940's and by about 74 per cent in the 1950's.
In 1948, Arizona's Indians won the right to vote. The Arizona Supreme Court struck down parts of the state Constitution that had kept Indians from voting.
Arizona shifted from an agricultural to a manufacturing economy during the 1950's and 1960's. By 1967, the value of industrial production had reached $1 billion, compared with about $600 million for agricultural products. New factories produced a wide variety of electrical and electronic goods, including appliances, computers, and refrigeration equipment. Arizona's warm winters attracted an increasing number of vacationers, and tourism began to be a major industry.
Growth in agriculture, manufacturing, and population during the 1940's and 1950's strained Arizona's water resources. By the 1960's, the state was pumping more water from its underground water supply than it was getting from rainfall. In 1963, the Supreme Court of the United States gave Arizona rights to 2,800,000 acre-feet (3.5 billion cubic meters) of water a year from the Colorado River. One acre-foot (1,233 cubic meters) is equal to 1 acre (0.4 hectare) of water 1 foot (30 centimeters) deep and will supply approximately five city dwellers for one year.
In 1965, Judge Lorna Lockwood was elected chief justice of the Arizona Supreme Court. Her election by her fellow judges made her the first woman in the United States to head a state supreme court.
Arizona's Indians made economic gains during the 1960's. Several tribes started to operate business companies, factories, and industrial and recreational areas on their reservations. Navajo Community College, the first college ever built on an Indian reservation, opened at Many Farms in 1969. The college moved to Tsaile, near Lukachukai, in 1973.
Recent developments. In 1974, construction began on the Central Arizona Project, a system of canals, tunnels, and pipelines designed to ensure the state a sufficient supply of water. The project was completed in 1991. The system covers 336 miles (541 kilometers) and extends from Lake Havasu on the Colorado River to the Saint Xavier Indian Reservation southwest of Tucson.
The solution to another long-standing problem also began to take shape in 1974, when the United States government took action in a dispute over land ownership between the Hopi and Navajo Indians. Congress gave each tribe half of a 1,800,000-acre (720,000-hectare) reservation area in northeastern Arizona. Both tribes had used the area since 1962. Indians living on the other tribe's land--mostly Navajo--had to move. In 1986, with the relocation of these Indians still not completed, the Hopi officially took possession of their half of the land.
In 1981, President Ronald Reagan appointed Arizona Judge Sandra Day O'Connor to the Supreme Court of the United States. She became its first woman member.
In 1988, Governor Evan Mecham was removed from office by the state legislature. He had been charged with illegally lending state money to his automobile dealership and trying to block an investigation into charges that one of his aides had made a death threat against a grand jury witness. The state House of Representatives impeached him. The Senate convicted Mecham on the charges, resulting in his removal from office. Secretary of State Rose Mofford succeeded him, becoming Arizona's first woman governor. In 1997, Governor Fife Symington was convicted of fraud for filing false financial statements to banks. The actions occurred while he was a real estate developer, and before he was governor. Under state law, the conviction forced him to resign.
Arizona's economy remains strong. But declining prices for copper and long labor disputes have led to severe economic problems in several mining areas.
Today, Arizona is one of the nation's fastest-growing states. Its population increased by 53 percent between 1970 and 1980 and by 35 percent between 1980 and 1990. The population growth has shifted to cities and away from rural areas.

Alaska

Alaska is the largest state of the United States in area. It is almost a fifth as large as all the rest of the United States, and more than twice the size of Texas, the second largest state. But Alaska has a relatively small population. According to the 1990 census, Alaska ranks 49th among all the states in population. Only Wyoming has fewer people than Alaska.

Juneau is Alaska's capital. Anchorage is the state's largest city in terms of population. Sitka, Juneau, and Anchorage--in that order--rank as the largest cities in the United States in terms of area.
When Alaska entered the Union in 1959, it was the first new state in 47 years. About 500 miles (800 kilometers) of Canadian territory separate Alaska from Washington. Alaskans often refer to the rest of the continental United States as the "lower 48."
The Alaskan mainland's most western point is only 51 miles (82 kilometers) from Russia. Alaska's Little Diomede Island, in the Bering Strait, is about 21/2 miles (4 kilometers) from Russia's Big Diomede Island. No other part of North America is closer to Asia.
Almost a third of Alaska lies north of the Arctic Circle. However, Point Barrow, the northernmost point, is almost 1,300 miles (2,090 kilometers) south of the North Pole. The state has a wide range of temperatures--as low as -80° F (-62° C), and as high as 100° F (38° C). The climate and soil as far north as the Arctic Circle permit farmers to raise livestock and grow barley, potatoes, and other crops. The summer sun shines about 20 hours a day in Alaska, and crops grow rapidly there. At Point Barrow, from May 10 to August 2, the sun never sets.
Secretary of State William H. Seward bought Alaska from Russia in 1867 for $7,200,000--only about 2 cents per acre (5 cents per hectare). Some Americans thought the region was a wasteland of ice and snow. They called it Seward's Folly, Seward's Icebox, and Icebergia. However, Alaska proved to be rich in fish, minerals, timber, and potential water power. The value of resources taken from the region has paid back the purchase price hundreds of times. Huge oil reserves at Prudhoe Bay along the Arctic coast rank as Alaska's chief source of wealth.
The name Alaska comes from a word used by the people of the Aleutian Islands. The word meant great land or mainland. It sounded like A-la-a-ska to early Russian settlers. Today, Alaska is often called the Last Frontier because much of the state is not fully settled.
Along the Arctic coast in the north and west, Inuit (also called Eskimos) still hunt and fish in much the same way that their ancestors did. However, even the most isolated villages have airstrips where "bush pilots" can land small planes and deliver messages, passengers, and supplies. Alaska's Arctic landscape also includes a number of radar and communications stations that help protect the United States and Canada against air attacks from across the North Pole region.
Alaska is famous for its towering mountains and beautiful scenery. Mount McKinley, which rises 20,320 feet (6,194 meters) above sea level, is the highest peak in the United States. In addition, Alaska has the 15 next highest peaks and almost all of the active volcanoes in the United States.


ALASKA/People
Population. The 1990 United States census reported that Alaska had 551,947 people. The population had increased 37 per cent over the 1980 figure of 401,851. According to the 1990 census, Alaska ranks 49th in population among the 50 states. Only Wyoming has fewer people than Alaska.
About a third of Alaska's people were born in Alaska. Many of those who were born in other states are members of the United States armed forces that are assigned to Alaska. Alaska has about 76,000 natives. They include about 44,000 Inuit and about 31,000 Indians. Most Inuit live in the north and west. About 10,000 of the Inuit are Aleuts. Aleuts live on the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands. Tlingit and Haida Indians live in the southeast. Athabaskan Indians are mainly in the south-central part of the state.
Most of the white population lives in or near Anchorage, Alaska's largest city; in Fairbanks; and in the southeastern coastal cities. Anchorage is Alaska's only metropolitan area (see METROPOLITAN AREA).
Schools. The commissioner of education heads Alaska's education department. The commissioner is appointed by the State Board of Education subject to the governor's approval. Seven voting members of the board are appointed by the state's governor. Two non-voting members, representing students and the military, also sit on the board. The board of education establishes policies for Alaska's public school system.
Children in Alaska must attend school from the ages of 7 through 15. Each organized borough is a school district and has a school board. Cities that lie outside the organized boroughs have city school boards. Regional school boards operate schools in rural areas outside the organized boroughs.
Alaska has three schools that grant bachelor's or advanced degrees and are accredited by the Northwest Association of Schools and Colleges. The University of Alaska has several campuses throughout the state (see ALASKA, UNIVERSITY OF). The state's two other colleges are Sheldon Jackson College in Sitka and Alaska Pacific University in Anchorage.
Libraries and museums. Alaska's State Library, located in Juneau, includes a historical section and state archives and records management services section. Academic libraries are located at the University of Alaska Fairbanks, the University of Alaska Anchorage, and the University of Alaska Southeast in Juneau.
The Alaska State Museum in Juneau features exhibits of Inuit and Indian objects. It also has displays dealing with animals and minerals in the state. A branch of the state museum, the Sheldon Jackson Museum in Sitka, has Inuit and Indian collections. The University of Alaska Museum in Fairbanks has history and wildlife displays, and a good collection of Alaskan art. Other cities that have museums include Anchorage, Bethel, Haines, Homer, Kenai, Ketchikan, Kodiak, Kotzebue, Nome, Palmer, Petersburg, Skagway, and Wasilla.
ALASKA/Visitor's guide
Alaska's vast areas of untamed wilderness attract many people who love the outdoors. Expert mountain climbers tackle Alaskan peaks that rank as the highest in North America. People fish for record-sized salmon, trout, and halibut.
Thousands of tourists come to see Alaska's magnificent mountain scenery and historic coastal towns. Many vacationers from the "lower 48" drive to the state on the Alaska Highway or take a scenic cruise along the Inside Passage of Alaska's southeastern coast.
Alaska offers interesting activities for everyone. These activities include white water kayaking, bird watching expeditions, and photographic tours of the famous "northern lights."
Perhaps the most popular winter event in Alaska is the 10-day-long Fur Rendezvous, held in Anchorage each February. This festival features athletic contests, sled dog races, and other entertainment.


ALASKA/Land and climate
Land regions. Alaska has four main land regions: (1) the Pacific Mountain System, (2) the Central Uplands and Lowlands, (3) the Rocky Mountain System, and (4) the Arctic Coastal Plain.
The Pacific Mountain System of Alaska is part of a group of ranges that extends down the Pacific Coast to southern California. In Alaska, the ranges curve from the Aleutian Islands in the west through south-central Alaska and along the coast in the southeast.
The region has many subdivisions. The strip of coastal land 400 miles (640 kilometers) long in the southeast is called the Alaska Panhandle. It is 10 to 150 miles (16 to 241 kilometers) wide, and includes tall mountains and ice fields. The Saint Elias Range extends northwestward from the Panhandle. Mount Saint Elias rises 18,008 feet (5,489 meters) in this range. The Wrangell Mountains, northwest of the Saint Elias Range, include Mount Bona (16,421 feet, or 5,005 meters) and three tall peaks--Mount Blackburn (16,523 feet, or 5,036 meters), Mount Sanford (16,208 feet, or 4,940 meters), and Mount Wrangell (14,005 feet, or 4,269 meters). Mount Wrangell is an active volcano. The Chugach and Kenai mountains border the coast from the Saint Elias Range west to the Kenai Peninsula and Kodiak Island. Mount Fairweather, in the Chugach Mountains, is 15,300 feet (4,663 meters) high. The Talkeetna Mountains, north of Anchorage, are a low range of rugged, glacier-cut peaks. The Alaska Range is the most inland section of the Pacific Mountain System. From the Canadian border, it curves west and southwest to the Alaska Peninsula. The Alaska Range includes Mount McKinley (20,320 feet, or 6,194 meters), the highest peak in North America, and Mount Foraker (17,400 feet, or 5,304 meters).
The Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands extend southwest in a long chain from the Alaska Range. The Aleutians include 14 large islands, about 55 small islands, and many islets. The largest islands are Unimak, Unalaska, and Umnak. The Aleutian Range forms the "backbone" of the peninsula and islands. It extends 1,600 miles (2,570 kilometers), from Mount Spurr, across Cook Inlet from Anchorage, to Attu Island near the Asian continent. The range has many active volcanoes. The greatest eruptions occurred in 1912, at what is now Katmai National Park. A new volcano, Novarupta, hurled tons of rocks and ashes into the air. The top of Mount Katmai collapsed and formed a caldera (basin) 3 miles (5 kilometers) wide and 3,700 feet (1,130 meters) deep. The lava and ash from the volcano formed the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, an area of fumaroles (holes from which hot gas steams up).
Two important lowlands lie within the Pacific Mountain System. These are the Copper River Basin and the Susitna-Cook Inlet lowland. The Copper River Basin, a forested lowland with river canyons, extends between the Chugach and Wrangell mountains. During the Ice Age, it was the site of a large lake. The Susitna-Cook Inlet lowland extends north and east from Anchorage. Most of the area is forested. But it has a few towns and includes the fertile farmland of the Matanuska Valley.
The Central Uplands and Lowlands make up the largest Alaskan land region. This region lies between the Alaska Range on the south and the Brooks Range on the north. It extends westward from the Canadian border and includes the Seward Peninsula and the Kuskokwim River area of southwestern Alaska. The region has low, rolling hills. It also has broad, swampy river valleys, including the valleys of the Koyukuk, Kuskokwim, Tanana, and Yukon rivers.
The Rocky Mountain System of Alaska consists of the Brooks Range and its foothills. The Brooks Range has steep, glacier-cut peaks that rise to 9,000 feet (2,700 meters) in the east, but are lower in the west. It includes the Baird, De Long, and Endicott mountains.
The Arctic Coastal Plain is the most northern region. It rises gradually from the Arctic Ocean to a height of about 600 feet (180 meters) in the south. Permafrost (permanently frozen ground) 1,000 feet (300 meters) thick lies under the plain. No trees can grow there. But the surface of the ground thaws during summer and becomes thickly carpeted with low grasses and wild flowers. This grassy, treeless area is called the tundra.
Coastline. Alaska's general coastline is 6,640 miles (10,686 kilometers) long. About 5,580 miles (8,980 kilometers) are along the Pacific Ocean, and about 1,060 miles (1,706 kilometers) are along the Arctic Ocean. All the coastline of the mainland and major islands washed by tidewater measures 33,904 miles (54,563 kilometers). The main features of the coast in the south are the Gulf of Alaska, Prince William Sound, and Cook Inlet. Bristol Bay and Norton Sound open into the Bering Sea in the southwest. Kotzebue Sound faces the Chukchi Sea in the northwest. The Arctic Ocean and the Beaufort Sea border the northern coast.
The southern coast is cut by hundreds of small bays, channels, and narrow, steep-sided inlets called fiords. The islands of the Alexander Archipelago rise from the Pacific off the shore of the Alaska Panhandle. Prince of Wales Island, the largest of the group, is the home of most of Alaska's Haida Indians. Ketchikan is on Revillagigedo Island, and Sitka is on Baranof Island. Other large islands in the group include Admiralty, Chichagof, and Kupreanof. Kodiak, Afognak, and several smaller islands lie southwest of the Kenai Peninsula in the Gulf of Alaska. The Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea are the summer home of the world's largest fur seal herd. Nunivak Island, northeast of the Pribilofs, is the home of many musk oxen. Saint Lawrence Island is located at the southern end of the Bering Strait. Little Diomede Island and Big Diomede Island are located in the Bering Strait. Little Diomede is part of Alaska. Big Diomede belongs to Russia.
Rivers and lakes. The Yukon River, Alaska's chief waterway, is the fifth-longest river in North America. It flows 1,979 miles (3,185 kilometers) through Alaska and parts of Canada. From June to October, the river is free of ice. Small boats and barges can travel from its mouth on the Bering Sea across Alaska and into Canada. The Yukon's main tributaries are the Koyukuk and the Tanana rivers. See YUKON RIVER.
Alaska's second-longest river, the Kuskokwim, empties into the Bering Sea at Kuskokwim Bay. The Colville River flows into the Arctic Ocean, and the Noatak and Kobuk rivers flow into the Chukchi Sea at Kotzebue Sound. The Susitna and Matanuska rivers flow into Cook Inlet, and the Copper River empties into the Gulf of Alaska. Several rivers, including the Alsek, Stikine, and Taku, begin in Canada and flow south or west across the Alaska Panhandle to the Pacific.
Alaska has thousands of lakes. The largest, Iliamna Lake on the Alaska Peninsula, is 80 miles (130 kilometers) long and 20 miles (32 kilometers) wide. Other lakes include Aleknagik, Becharof, Clark, Minchumina, Naknek, Selawik, Skilak, Teshekpuk, and Tustumena.
Glaciers. Thousands of glaciers from 1 to 30 miles (1.6 to 48 kilometers) long fill Alaska's mountain valleys and canyons. The greatest number of glaciers are along the coast in the south and southeast. Malaspina, in the Saint Elias Range, is North America's largest glacier. It is an ice sheet almost 50 miles (80 kilometers) wide. Many Alaska glaciers are easy to reach, and scientists from all parts of North America come to study them. Columbia Glacier can be reached by boat from Cordova. This huge ice sheet ends in an ice cliff in the sea. Glaciers that can be reached by highway include Black Rapids, Canwell, Castner, Gulkana, Matanuska, Mendenhall, Portage, and Worthington.
Plant and animal life. Forests cover about a third of Alaska. The most important trees are birches, Sitka spruces, western hemlocks, and white spruces. Other trees include aspens, black spruces, cottonwoods, tamaracks, and willows.
Grasses, mosses, lichens, and sedges are found in many parts of Alaska. In the far north, these plants provide feed for caribou and other animals. Wild flowers also grow throughout the state. Wild flowers on the tundra include asters, cinquefoils, fireweeds, forget-me-nots, larkspurs, and mountain laurels. Arctic daisies, bog laurels, cowslips, violets, wild hyacinths, and wood nymphs bloom in the mountains.
The waters off Alaska's shores are rich in salmon and halibut. They also contain great quantities of clams, cod, crabs, herring, and shrimp. The world's largest herd of fur seals is found on the Pribilof Islands in summer. A herd of musk oxen lives on Nunivak Island. Brown bears live on Kodiak Island and in other parts of south-central and southeast Alaska. Polar bears live along the Arctic Coast. Other animals include caribou, deer, elk, grizzly bears, moose, mountain goats, and mountain sheep. Game birds include ducks, geese, and grouse.
Climate. Alaska has a great variety of climates. Winds that blow eastward over the warm Kuroshio (Japan Current) give southern Alaska a fairly mild climate. Near the southern coast, temperatures average 28 °F (-2 °C) in January and 55 °F (13 °C) in July. Precipitation (rain, melted snow, and other moisture) averages 20 inches (51 centimeters) at Cook Inlet and 92 inches (234 centimeters) in the Panhandle. Parts of the southeast coast get heavy precipitation. Port Walter, on Baranof Island, has the highest average yearly precipitation in the continental United States--221 inches (561 centimeters).
In the inland parts of Alaska, temperatures average about -9 °F (-23 °C) in January, and about 59 °F (15 °C) in July. The annual precipitation averages about 13 inches (33 centimeters). Fort Yukon recorded Alaska's highest temperature, 100 °F (38 °C), on June 27, 1915. The record low, -80 °F (-62 °C), was set at Prospect Creek, near Stevens Village, on Jan. 23, 1971.
The Alaskan Arctic has an average January temperature of -11 °F (-24 °C), and an average July temperature of 47 °F (8 °C). Annual precipitation is low--only 4 inches (10 centimeters) in some places.

ALASKA/Economy
Alaska's economy relies heavily on government activities and petroleum production. Mining is Alaska's single most important economic activity. The huge amounts of petroleum produced by Alaska's mining industry are shipped to other states in oil tankers and through the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. Fishing is the dominant economic activity in many parts of the state. Service industries, which include such activities as government operations, transportation, and real estate, are also important to the state. Tourism benefits many businesses in Alaska, including hotels, shops, restaurants, and tour organizers. More than 1 million tourists visit the state annually and spend over $1 billion.
Land use has been one of the most difficult economic problems facing Alaskans. The federal government owns and controls most of the state's land, and it has set aside large areas for wildlife conservation and national parklands.

Natural resources of Alaska include rich soils, valuable mineral products, and plentiful water, fish, and forests.
Soil. Most interior valley soils in Alaska are composed of loess (coarse particles of dust deposited by the wind). These soils resemble the soils found in the western United States, China, and other highly productive farm areas. Although Alaska's soils are naturally productive, they need much fertilizer.
Minerals. Oil and natural gas have been found on the Kenai Peninsula and in Cook Inlet in south-central Alaska. Large reserves of oil and natural gas lie near Prudhoe Bay on the state's Arctic coast. Natural gas also has been found near Point Barrow in the Arctic Coastal Plain. Coal is found in the Kenai Peninsula, the Matanuska Valley, the Arctic Coastal Plain, and along the Healy River and Yukon River.
Gold in Alaska comes primarily from the Yukon River Basin near Fairbanks and the Seward Peninsula near Nome. Gold in these areas is found in streambeds. It is found in combination with other precious metals in underground deposits on many islands in southeastern Alaska.
A major zinc deposit lies northwest of Kotzebue. One of the largest molybdenum deposits in the world is located near Ketchikan. Tin is mined on the Seward Peninsula. Widespread deposits of sand and gravel are a valuable resource for the construction industry. In addition, Alaska has deposits of antimony, chromite, copper, gemstones, granite, limestone, nickel, platinum, silver, and tungsten.
Service industries, taken together, account for the largest portion of Alaska's gross state product--the total value of goods and services produced in a state in a year. Most of the service industries are concentrated in the urban areas of the state.
Transportation, communication, and utilities form Alaska's leading service industry in terms of the gross state product. Transportation is essential to Alaska's economy because the state lies far from major markets. Pipeline and shipping companies transport petroleum to processors. Ships also bring such essential goods as automobiles and groceries to Alaska from other states. The Alaska Aerospace Development Corporation is creating the first privately operated rocket launch complex in the United States at Kodiak Island. Telephone companies are the biggest part of the communications sector. Utilities provide gas, electric, and water service. More information about transportation and communication appears later in this section.
Ranking next among the service industries of Alaska are (1) government and (2) finance, insurance, and real estate. Each of these two industries contributes an equal portion of the gross state product. Government services employ more people than any other economic activity. These services include the operation of public schools, public hospitals, and military bases. An extensive network of government services is necessary because the state's people are spread over a large area. The federal government controls much of the state's land. Military bases are located near Anchorage and Fairbanks.
Anchorage is Alaska's chief financial center. The selling of buildings and other property is the major real estate activity.
Next among service industries in Alaska are community, business, and personal services. This industry consists of a wide variety of establishments. These include doctors offices and private hospitals, hotels, law firms, engineering companies, and repair shops. Engineering companies involved in mining, construction, and aerospace technology are especially important.
Wholesale and retail trade rank fifth among Alaska's service industries in terms of the gross state product. The wholesale trade of petroleum products, groceries, and motor vehicles is important in Alaska. Major types of retail businesses include automobile dealerships, food stores, and hardware stores.
Mining. Petroleum provides about 95 percent of Alaska's mining income. The Prudhoe Bay area is one of the world's major petroleum-producing regions. This area lies above the North Slope. Prudhoe Bay also contains vast natural gas reserves. Petroleum is transported south from Prudhoe Bay by the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. Petroleum is also pumped from oil fields in the Kenai Peninsula-Cook Inlet area.
For many years, gold was Alaska's major mineral product. Alaska is still an important gold-mining state. Most of the gold is obtained from placer deposits near Fairbanks and Nome. Placer deposits are particles of gold in streambeds.
Another major mineral product in Alaska is zinc. The Red Dog Mine, the largest zinc mine in the United States, is near Kotzebue. Alaska's other mineral products include coal, crushed stone, lead, molybdenum, sand and gravel, silver, and tin.
Manufacturing. Goods manufactured in Alaska have a value added by manufacture of about $11/4 million a year. This figure represents the increase in value of raw materials after they become finished products.
Food processing is Alaska's leading manufacturing ac-tivity in terms of value added by manufacture. Fish products are the main source of food-processing income. Many coastal cities process salmon. The processing of crab, herring, and sablefish is also important to the economy of Alaska.
Petroleum products rank second in terms of value added. The Fairbanks and Kenai areas have large oil refineries. Refineries also operate at Prudhoe Bay.
Other products manufactured in Alaska include wood products, paper products, and printed materials. The southern Panhandle has many log-processing camps and sawmills. Pulp is the state's main paper product. Newspapers are the leading kind of printed material in Alaska. The Anchorage area is the state's main center of newspaper production.
Fishing industry. Alaska leads the states in the annual value of fish caught by the commercial fishing industry. The state has a yearly fish catch valued at about $11/2 billion. Workers in the industry catch cod, Dungeness crabs, flounder, groundfish, halibut, herring eggs, pollock, rockfish, sablefish, salmon, scallops, and smelt. Kodiak and Dutch Harbor are the chief fishing ports.
Agriculture. Farms cover only about 21/2 percent of Alaska's land area. The fertile Matanuska Valley northeast of Anchorage produces about three-fourths of Alaska's farm products. Alaska has about 520 farms.
Milk is Alaska's most valuable livestock product, followed by eggs and beef cattle. Alaskan farmers also raise chickens, hogs, sheep, and lambs. Inuit keep herds of reindeer as a source of meat and hides.
The growing season in Alaska is very short. However, the summer sun shines about 20 hours a day in the central part of the state, and crops ripen quickly there. All fruits and vegetables that grow in a cool climate can be raised in Alaska as far north as the Arctic Circle. Greenhouse and nursery products are the leading source of agricultural income in Alaska. In addition, Alaskan farmers grow such crops as barley, hay, oats, and potatoes. Timber is also important in the state.
Fur industry. Alaska trappers catch many kinds of fur-bearing animals, including beavers, lynxes, martens, minks, wolves, and wolverines. The animals' pelts have a yearly value of from $5 million to $10 million.
Many Alaskans, most of them natives, hunt and fish for food. They also use animal skins in making clothing and other items for daily living.
Electric power. Power plants that burn natural gas provide about 55 percent of the electric power generated in Alaska. Hydroelectric plants generate about 30 percent of the state's power. Only a small fraction of the state's potential hydroelectric power has been developed. The rest of the state's power comes from coal-burning and petroleum-burning plants.
Transportation. It is difficult and expensive to build roads and railroads in Alaska. The land is rugged, and the construction season is short.
During World War II (1939-1945), the federal government built the Alaska Highway--the only major land route from Alaska to Canada and to the "lower 48." The highway extends between Dawson Creek, B.C., and Delta Junction, where it joins the Richardson Highway to Fairbanks. The Alaska Highway, together with the Richardson Highway, extends 1,495 miles (2,406 kilometers). Alaska has about 14,000 miles (23,000 kilometers) of roads and highways. Most of the state's roads link the Alaska Highway with the Kenai Peninsula, Anchorage, Valdez, and Fairbanks.
The state-owned Alaska Railroad provides freight service from Seward and Whittier to Anchorage and Fairbanks. This railroad also operates passenger trains.
Small planes flown by "bush pilots" provide the only link between about 200 remote villages and the outside world. These pilots carry passengers, supplies, and messages across thousands of miles of rugged, empty country. Anchorage is a major air terminal. It serves as a refueling base for aircraft traveling the "polar route," which connects Europe with North America and Asia. Other major airports are located at Juneau and Fairbanks.
Alaska depends on container ship service for most of its trade with the "lower 48." The state's chief ports are Anchorage, Ketchikan, Kodiak, Seward, Sitka, Skagway,Unalaska/Dutch Harbor, Whittier, Wrangell, and Valdez. Nome, the main port on the Bering Sea, is blocked by ice in winter.
Alaska has an outstanding ferryliner system owned by the state. Three main routes serve coastal areas. In the southeast, huge ferryliners, each carrying as many as 108 cars, travel between Haines and Skagway in the north and Bellingham, Wash., and Prince Rupert, B.C., in the south. These ferryliners stop at Juneau, Ketchikan, and several other cities. The Kodiak Island Ferry connects Seward, Kodiak, Homer, Valdez, and Cordova. The Prince William Sound ferryliner service links Valdez, Cordova, and Whittier.
Communication. The first public newspaper in Alaska, the Sitka Times, began publication in Sitka in 1868. Today, Alaska has about 35 newspapers, of which 6 are dailies. The leading daily newspapers published in Alaska include the Anchorage Daily News, Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, and Juneau Empire.
The first radio station in Alaska, KFQD, started broadcasting from Anchorage in 1924. The state's first television stations, KTVA-TV and KFIA-TV (now KENI-TV), began operating in 1953, also in Anchorage. Today, the state has about 85 radio stations and 15 television stations. Cable television systems service several of Alaska's communities.
ALASKA/Government
Constitution. Alaska's present Constitution was adopted in 1956, three years before the territory became a state. A constitutional amendment must be approved by two-thirds of the members of each house of the state legislature. Then it must be approved by a majority of voters in a statewide election.
Amendments may also be proposed by a constitutional convention. The convention must be approved by a majority of each house of the legislature. It must then be approved by a majority of the people who vote on the issue in an election. All amendments proposed by the convention must be approved by the voters. If no convention has been held in a 10-year period, the question of calling a convention must be put to the voters.
Executive. The governor of Alaska is elected to a four-year term and cannot serve more than two terms in a row. Alaska's lieutenant governor is the only other elected state official. He or she is elected to a four-year term and can be reelected any number of times.

The state's other top executive officials include 13 commissioners, each of whom heads one of Alaska's 15 executive departments. Alaska also has an attorney general, who heads the Department of Law, and an adjutant general, who heads the Department of Military and Veterans Affairs. The governor appoints these two officials and the 13 commissioners with the approval of a majority of the legislators voting in a joint session.
Legislature consists of a 20-member Senate and a 40-member House of Representatives. Six of Alaska's 14 senatorial districts elect 2 senators, and 8 elect 1. Thirteen of the state's 27 representative districts elect 2 representatives, and 14 elect 1. Senators serve four-year terms. Representatives serve two-year terms.
The legislature holds a regular session every year. The sessions begin on the second Monday in January, except in years following gubernatorial elections--when they begin on the third Monday in January. The length of the sessions is limited to 120 days. The legislature or governor may call a 30-day special session.
Courts. The highest court in Alaska is the state Supreme Court. It has five justices, one of whom is chosen by the other justices to serve a three-year term as chief justice. The Supreme Court concentrates on civil matters but has ultimate authority in all cases.
The Court of Appeals, which has three judges, is the second-highest court for criminal matters. The Superior Court, Alaska's second-highest court for civil cases, has 30 judges. It is divided into four districts. District courts handle some civil and criminal cases. Seventeen district court judges serve in Alaska's four judicial districts. The Court of Appeals has jurisdiction to review district court decisions.
The governor appoints the Supreme Court justices and the Superior Court and Court of Appeals judges from people nominated by the Alaska Judicial Council. This council consists of the chief justice and six private citizens. After serving three years, a Supreme Court justice or Superior Court or Court of Appeals judge must be approved by the voters in the next general election. Each Supreme Court justice must be reapproved every 10 years. Superior Court judges must be reapproved every 6 years, and Court of Appeals judges every 8 years.
The governor appoints district court judges from candidates recommended by a district judicial council. Voters must approve such judges in the first general election held more than a year after their appointment, and every four years thereafter.
Local government. Alaska is divided into 16 local government units called organized boroughs. Organized boroughs are incorporated areas that may include cities, suburbs, and rural areas. They are equivalent to counties in other states. Each borough is governed by an assembly of from 5 to 11 members. In most boroughs, the top administrative officer is a chairman elected by the people. A borough may instead have a manager appointed by the assembly. Other borough officials are appointed by the chairman or the manager. Organized boroughs cover only about 44 percent of Alaska. However, they have about 85 percent of the population. The rest of the state is called the unorganized borough. It is governed by the Legislature.
Alaska's cities use a mayor-council or city-manager form of government. All of the cities have elected city councils.
Revenue. Much of the income of Alaska's government comes directly from oil and gas production. Petroleum companies pay the state production taxes and royalties, a share of their profits. In addition, the state receives revenue from taxes on corporate income, motor fuels, and property. Alaska also gets money from federal grants and other U.S. government programs. The state has no personal income tax or sales tax.
Politics. Fewer contests take place between political parties in Alaska than in most other states. Almost all of Alaska's state and local government officials are appointed or are elected on a nonpartisan (no-party) basis. The state's elections for governor have resulted in several victories for both Democrats and Republicans. In elections for president, Alaska's voters have favored the Republican candidate almost every time.
ALASKA/History

Early days. No one knows exactly how long human beings have lived in America. But most scientists believe that the first Americans walked across a land bridge from Asia into what is now Alaska about 15,000 years ago. In the 1700's, when whites first arrived in the Alaskan region, three groups of people--Inuit, Aleuts, and Indians--were living there.
The Inuit lived in the Far North and West. From Alaska's north coast to Greenland, Inuit hunted such large sea mammals as whales, seals, and polar bears. Some small groups of Inuit inhabited inland areas and hunted caribou.
The Aleuts, closely related to the Inuit, lived on the Aleutian Islands and the Alaska Peninsula. The Aleuts were skillful sea hunters.
The largest Indian groups, the Tlingit and Haida, lived along the coast, where fish and game were plentiful. Some Tsimshian Indians also lived there. The Athabaskan Indians lived in the interior, a rugged region without the rich natural resources of the coast. The Athabaskans fished and hunted caribou.
European exploration. The Russians were the first Europeans to become interested in the Alaskan region. In 1648, a group of Russians, led by Semen I. Dezhnev, sailed through the strait separating northeastern Asia and northwestern North America. In 1725, Czar Peter the Great of Russia commissioned Vitus Bering, a Danish navigator, to explore the North Pacific region. Bering and his crew traveled more than 6,000 miles (9,700 kilometers) across Russia and Asia. Then they built a ship and in 1728 sailed through the strait navigated earlier by Dezhnev. This body of water later became known as the Bering Strait. But Bering did not sight the North American mainland because of fog.
In 1741, Bering and Aleksei Chirikov, a Russian explorer, led a second expedition to the region. Bering's party sighted Mount St. Elias in southeastern Alaska and landed on what is now Kayak Island.
Expeditions from England, France, and Spain soon reached Alaskan waters. Most of these explorers sought a sea route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
The Russian era. Members of the second Bering expedition returned to Russia with sea otter furs. Russian traders and hunters then developed a brisk fur trade on the Aleutian Islands and later on the mainland. Fur traders enslaved the Aleuts and, by overhunting, nearly destroyed populations of fur-bearing animals in the Aleutians. In 1784, Gregory Shelikof, a trader, established the first white settlement in Alaska, then called Russian America, on Kodiak Island.
In 1799, Russia chartered the Russian-American Company, a trading firm. Alexander Baranof became the firm's chief manager. Baranof moved the company's headquarters to Novo Arkhangelsk (New Archangel, now Sitka), which he captured from the Tlingit Indians. Novo Arkhangelsk became the largest town in Russian America. Baranof managed company affairs profitably for the stockholders, and he established good relations with many native groups. The Russian-American Company sent Russian Orthodox priests to convert the native Alaskans to Christianity.
In 1818, Baranof retired, and the company began to lose money. Russian naval commanders then ruled the colony.
In 1824 and 1825, Russia signed separate treaties with the United States and Great Britain. These pacts recognized latitude 54 degrees 40 minutes as the southern boundary of Russian territory in America. As part of the agreements, Russia gave the United States and Britain trading rights along Alaska's Pacific Coast.
American purchase. The Russians tried to develop several industries, including coal mining, shipbuilding, and whale hunting. But by the 1850's, the fur trade had declined and the company's other enterprises had begun to fail. After the Crimean War (1853-1856) weakened Russia, the country became eager to sell Alaska. United States Secretary of State William H. Seward agreed to buy the region for $7,200,000, about 2 cents per acre (5 cents per hectare). On March 30, 1867, he signed the Treaty of Cession of Russian America to the United States. Some Americans opposed the purchase. They called Alaska such names as Seward's Folly, Seward's Icebox, and Icebergia. But many Americans favored the acquisition. Congress approved the purchase, and American troops raised the U.S. flag at Sitka on Oct. 18, 1867.
Congress did not provide for an Alaskan government during the next 17 years. Alaska was administered first by the War Department, next by the Treasury Department, and then by the Navy Department. These three agencies had little interest in the local problems of the region.
A few American companies became interested in Alaska's rich salmon fisheries. In 1878, they built the first canneries in Alaska.
In 1884, Congress passed the first Organic Act. This act established Alaska as a "civil and judicial district." It provided for a governor, a code of laws, and a federal court. But the laws were the laws of Oregon, and they were not adapted to Alaskan conditions. Congress kept the power to make laws for Alaska.
The gold rush. In 1880, Joseph Juneau and Richard T. Harris discovered gold deposits along Gastineau Channel in southeastern Alaska. This discovery led to the founding of the city of Juneau. In 1896, prospectors found rich gold deposits in the Klondike district of Canada's Yukon region, just across the border from Alaska. The discovery led to the Klondike and Alaska gold rush of 1897-1898. Miners discovered gold at what is now Nome in 1898 and in the Fairbanks area in 1902. The three gold discoveries attracted thousands of people hoping to strike it rich and aroused nationwide interest in Alaska. Alaska's population nearly doubled in 10 years, reaching 63,592 by 1900.
The early 1900's. The gold discoveries focused congressional attention on Alaska. In 1903, a group of U.S. senators toured the territory to learn of Alaska's needs. They recommended that the government construct a system of transportation routes there. Congress then created a Board of Road Commissioners for Alaska, which built and maintained wagon roads, trails, bridges, and ferries throughout the territory.
In 1906, Congress allowed Alaskans to elect their own delegate to Congress. They chose Frank H. Waskey, a Democrat. He could speak in the House of Representatives but was not allowed to vote. During this period, James W. Wickersham, a federal judge, rallied Alaskans to the cause of more self-government for Alaska. In 1908, Wickersham was elected Alaska's delegate to Congress. In 1912, Congress passed the second Organic Act, which gave Alaska a territorial legislature with limited powers.
The Alaska Native Brotherhood (ANB) was formed in 1913. It was joined by the Alaska Native Sisterhood two years later. These organizations sought to unite the native communities of the region and fought for the political interests of its members. The groups helped achieve voting rights, integrated classrooms, and other civil rights for Alaska's native peoples.
In 1929, the ANB enlisted Wickersham to pursue a settlement for native lands seized by the federal government. Wickersham failed to persuade Congress to recognize native land claims. But the work of his successors and native groups eventually led to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971.
World War II (1939-1945) caused great changes in Alaska. The United States recognized the military importance of the territory, which lay close to Asia, and sent thousands of workers there to build and maintain military installations. In 1942, the Japanese bombed Dutch Harbor in the Aleutian Islands and occupied Kiska and Attu, two islands in the chain. These islands were the only part of North America invaded during World War II. The government built the Alaska Highway in 1942, mainly as a military supply road. In 1943, about 152,000 military personnel were stationed in Alaska. United States troops recovered Kiska and Attu later that year, and the war in Alaska ended. But the military impact altered the territory forever.
Statehood. The war led to demands that Congress admit the territory to statehood. The first Alaskan statehood bill was introduced in Congress in 1916, but it did not receive a hearing. Other statehood bills were introduced from the mid-1940's until 1958. In 1958, Congress voted to admit Alaska to the Union. On Jan. 3, 1959, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the proclamation declaring Alaska the 49th state. Alaska became the first new state since 1912. William A. Egan, a Democrat, became the first elected governor of Alaska.
Alaska found its first years of statehood difficult and costly. It had to take over the expenses of public services that the federal government had provided. Congress helped by giving Alaska some buildings, transition grants, and other funding. Alaska also received funds from the lease of public lands and the right to claim 103.5 million acres (41.9 million hectares) of federal land over a 25-year period. State selection of lands began soon afterward. Alaska's Inuit and Indians, however, protested the selection process. They charged that the process did not recognize their claims of ownership or their traditional way of life, in which small bands moved over large areas hunting, fishing, and gathering food. These and other issues spurred the formation of the Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN) in 1966. The organization included representatives from nearly every group of native people and helped lead the fight for a full settlement of Alaska native land claims.
During the 1960's, the state improved its transportation facilities. It developed a state ferry system, the "Marine Highway," to serve coastal cities.
In 1964, one of the biggest earthquakes ever known to hit North America shook the area around Anchorage and Valdez. It measured 8.3 on the Richter scale. The quake and tsunamis (huge, destructive waves) that it caused killed 131 people and resulted in more than $400 million in property damage.
The discovery of oil. In 1968, the Atlantic Richfield Company announced the discovery of a giant oil field at Prudhoe Bay on the Arctic Coastal Plain. It was one of the greatest oil discoveries in history. This oil field has the largest reserves of oil in North America. In 1969, Alaska auctioned oil and gas leases on the field's 450,000 acres (182,000 hectares) and earned over $900 million. Construction of a pipeline to carry oil about 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) across the state, from Prudhoe Bay to the port of Valdez, began in 1974. The pipeline was completed in 1977 at a total cost of about $8 billion, and oil production began.
The development of the Prudhoe Bay oil field provided new jobs and greatly increased state revenues during the late 1970's and early 1980's. In 1976, Alaska's voters had approved an amendment to the state Constitution that created the Alaska Permanent Fund, a savings account that belongs to all the people of Alaska. The amendment calls for at least 25 percent of all money earned by mineral development to be deposited into this fund. In 1980, the high revenues created by the oil boom enabled the state government to abolish individual state income taxes. In 1982, every Alaskan resident of six months or more began receiving dividend payments from the Alaska Permanent Fund. Each year, 50 percent of the earnings of the fund are distributed equally to eligible Alaskans.
Land-use issues. From 1971 to 1980, the federal government set aside large amounts of land for native Alaskans and for conservation purposes. In 1971, President Richard M. Nixon signed the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act. This revolutionary measure gave $962.5 million and about 44 million acres (18 million hectares) of land to the state's Inuit and Indians. The act created 12 regional corporations to administer the money and the land. A 13th corporation was added later. Every Alaskan Inuit and Indian received shares in the corporations.
In 1978, 56 million acres (23 million hectares) of Alaskan land were set aside as national monuments. In 1980, Congress passed the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act. This act added more than 104 million acres (42 million hectares) to the conservation system in Alaska. The measure established the boundaries for a widespread network of federal, state, native, and private lands.
The 1980 conservation act gave rural Alaskans priority in hunting and fishing for food on federal lands. But many urban Alaskans who hunt and fish for sport complained that these provisions discriminated against them. Disputes over hunting and fishing rights led to increasing racial tensions between urban whites and rural native people.
Recent developments. In 1989, an oil tanker, the Exxon Valdez, struck a reef in Prince William Sound in southeastern Alaska, causing the largest oil spill in United States history. Nearly 11 million gallons (42 million liters) of crude oil spilled into the sound. The oil polluted beaches and fishing waters and destroyed wildlife. Most of the cleanup work at the sound was completed in 1992 at a cost of more than $2 billion. But scientists continue to work toward restoring the ecological balance of the area.